Christianity in Mughal India (1580–1707): Imperial Policy, Christian–Muslim Relations, and Cross-Cultural Exchange

Abstract

This article examines the development of Christianity in Mughal India between 1580 and 1707 through an analysis of imperial religious policy, Jesuit missionary activity, and Christian–Muslim intellectual relations during the reigns of Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb. Drawing upon Persian chronicles, Jesuit correspondence, European travel accounts, missionary literature, and modern historical scholarship, it argues that Mughal policy towards Christianity cannot be understood simply in terms of tolerance or intolerance. Rather, it evolved in response to changing political, diplomatic, and imperial priorities under successive Mughal rulers. The study demonstrates that Christianity remained a minority religion despite enjoying periods of remarkable imperial patronage, particularly during Akbar’s reign. Its limited expansion resulted from the resilience of Islamic and Hindu religious traditions, the Jesuits’ court-centred missionary strategy, their limited knowledge of local languages, history, and religious traditions, the social and cultural consequences of conversion, changing political circumstances, and the close association of Christian missions with Portuguese imperial interests. The article further argues that the sectarian rivalries between Catholics and Protestants, together with the confrontational attitude adopted by some missionaries towards Islamic beliefs, sacred figures, and religious practices, further weakened the credibility of Christian missions and reduced their appeal among both the Mughal elite and the wider population. Despite its limited demographic success, Christianity exercised a significant intellectual and cultural influence on Mughal India. Persian Christian literature, theological debates, translation projects, educational activities, diplomacy, artistic exchange, and sustained interaction between Muslim scholars and Jesuit missionaries created one of the most important centres of Christian–Muslim intellectual dialogue in the early modern world. The article concludes that the historical significance of Christianity in Mughal India should be measured not by the number of converts but by its enduring contribution to interreligious dialogue, cross-cultural exchange, and the intellectual history of the Persianate world.